The Appian Way was the first ancient Roman road. It was also the most famous road, and it ran from Rome to Campania. This road was begun in 312 BC, by the censor Appius Claudius Caecus. At first, the road only ran 132 miles from Rome to Capua. By 244 BC, it had been extended another 230 miles to Brundisium. Most of the road was straight till it reached Tarracine. the road was convex, to facilitate drainage. The road's foundation was heavy stone blocks lined with mortar. Parts of the Appian Way still exist today.
In 306 AD, Constantine rose to emperor after the death of his father Constantius. Maxentius (his brother-in-law) and he were bitter rivals as co-emperors of the west. Before the battle of Milvian Bridge in 312 AD, Constantine had a vision of Christ, telling him to put his symbol on their battle standards. Constantine obliged, and was victorious over Maxentius. Constantine took on to support of Christianity, even though he still believed in his pagan sun god. Constantine felt he owed his victory to the God of the Christians, and pushed forward for an imperial policy to advance its cause. Some people argued that Constantine only converted for political reasons, but this may not be true, even though Constantine only got baptized right before death. Tax exemptions were given to Christians, and money from the imperial treasury was granted to rebuild churches. After Constantine died, his three sons had different religious views, and created political instability. Nevertheless, Christianity came to dominate the western world.
First Punic War Carthage had control of much of Sicily in the 260's, which mattered little to Rome. Thus, when a quarrel arose in 264 in Messana, some sided with teh Carthaginians, and some sided with the Romans. Many thought this was a local problem, and it was, until it blew up into something big. When a Carthaginian fleet was invited into Messana, Rome felt like it had to respond in some way. Therefore, an expeditionary force was sent to expel the Punic fleet. Carthage then responded by sending out a larger force, and Rome responded in the same way. Rome quickly won many victories, but as the war went on, it was clear that to win the war, Rome would have to win control of the sea. This war lasted 20 years.
Second Punic War A peace treaty put Carthage in an impossible position. Not long after the First Punic War, a geniune war hero arose, Hamilcar Barca, who won much of Spain. It became apparent, though, that he wouldn't be able to get revenge on the Romans, so he taught his son everything he knew, including a hatred of the Romans. Hannibal quickly established himself as an even greater leader than his father, and he marched on Rome at the age of twenty-five.
Third Punic War The Third Punic War was a brief and unnecessary war. The Carthaginians had lost an empire, but had lost their debt with it, and were left free to pursue their own goals. The Romans tried to use much of the agricultural land they gained, but never would they be as good as the Carthaginians at it. This angered the Romans, which caused Cato the Elder to agitate against Carthage. Some feared Carthage was dangerous, and many were angry that the Carthaginians were prospering while they were not. Cato was sure that the only defense against Carthage rising again was to completely destroy it. African tribes learned that the Carthaginians would not cross the border into Roman territory, therefore they would steal from them and return to Roman soil. This angered the Carthaginians who eventually crossed the border to attack the African tribes. The Romans saw this as an excuse, and declared that this was violation of the treaty. War was declared.
It was July 18th, 64 A.D. In the night a fire broke out in the merchant area of the city of Rome. The summer winds fanned the fire, and allowed it to spread quickly to the dry, wooden structures of the Imperial City. For six days and seven nights the conflagration scarred Rome. Seventy percent of the city was left in smoldering ruin. Rumors arose of Nero ordering the torching of Rome, and these accused him of standing on the Palatine Hill and watching, playing his lyre, as Rome burned. These have never been proven true, but Nero did look for scapegoat, and found one in the Christians in the city, who he had fed to the lions. From these ruins of Rome rose a more spectacular Rome, with marble, stone, wide streets, pedestrian arcades, and ample water supply for any future fires. Also, much of the debri was used to fill in marshes around Rome that had plagued the city with malaria for generations.
The Subura was a district in a valley central Rome. It was a low-lying area between the Viminal and Esquiline hills. It was a busy, crowded, noisy, dirty area. The Subura housed trades in manufacturing, crime, prostitution, merchants, writers, and politicians. This was a motley group of people. Many families that lived in the Subura were poor, lower-class families. In the Subura, Juvenal states that there are "the thousand dangers of a savage city" (Sat. 3. 8-9). The Subura has been called, dirty and wet, a resort of harlots, of dealers in provisions and delicacies, and finery of tradesmen of various sorts. There were also some dwellings of more distinguished persons, including Caesar. Pictures: Google Earth http://www.collegium-metamense.de/latein/felix/subura.jpg
510 BC-Tarquin Superbus, Rome's last king, is overthrown in rebellion 450 BC-Romans colonize Italy; Law of Twelve Tables is published 300 BC-Rome and Carthage sign a treaty 264-241 BC-First Punic War; Rome annexes Corsica, Sardinia, and Sicily; Aurelian Way completed 200-196 BC-Second Macedonian War 150-146 BC-Third Punic War; Carthage destroyed 103-102 BC-Second Sicilian Slave Rebellion 51 BC-Gaul becomes a Roman province 6 AD-Judea becomes a Roman province 54 AD-Nero becomes emperor 80 AD-Fires ravage Rome again; Baths of Titus and Coloseum are completed 161-180 AD-Rule of Marcus Aurelius 250 AD-Decius introduces "Emperor Worship" and persecutes Christians 306 AD-Constantine declared ruler of the Eastern Empire 351 AD-Constantius reunites the Empire 395 AD-The Empire is permanently divided 452 AD-Attila invades northern Italy
Now, a great new age is coming; A boy will be sent down from heaven, who will have the life of the gods he will see the gods, and he will seem like him to those men. This boy will rule the world in which the virtuous men of this land will get peace. A few evil men, however, will remain, which men will order under the yoke and would wage harsh war . There also there will be another war, and also the Great Achilles being sent to the Troy. Then, the boy will have been for a long time where you men, there will be no work, no war, and the sailor come in from the sea, and the farmers as well will leave behind their farms, and the earth will prepare itself for all people everywhere. Rush, time; begin little boy, know your mother, and enough spirit inside me to say your deeds.
In Etruria, a man named C Manlius was gathering weapons to form a revolt. Cicero believed Catiline was behind it. Cicero managed to convince the Senate of the danger, and the senate gave him full authority over the matter. Catiline and his supporters had a meeting, and afterward, both Catiline and Cicero debated at the senate. In the end, Catiline volunteered to go into exile. On his way, Catiline joined C. Manlius and his mob. The Romans conspirators wanted the Gauls to help, but they didn't want anything to do with it. Word of this got to Rome, and the senate wanted the conspirators killed. Caesar, who was praetor at the time, argued against death as a penalty, but in teh end he was overruled, and the conspirators were strangled. In 62 BC, M. Petreius destroyed the revolt, and killed Catiline in the progress, and the conspiracy ended. Cicero was hailed as "father of his country" for saving Rome from another rebellion, but later this would turn against him.
In medicine, the Romans learned much from the Greeks. This isn't to say that the Romans copied the Greeks, but used some of the Greek's practical ideas and threw out what was not needed. In the early years of the Roman Empire there were no real "doctors", just the leader of the family who were trusted to know enough about medicine and herbs. Romans also supported the idea that a healthy mind supports a healthy body. Romans believed that illness occurred from a natural cause. Cities, villas, and forts were built in wha were thought of as "healthy" places. Romans occasionally drained marshes to rid the area of malaria carrying mosquitoes. Great emphasis was put on keeping Roman soldiers fit and supplied with clean water. Having clean water was a big concern for the Romans, and they used aqueducts to bring water from afar. Personal baths were also very important.
The Pantheon was originally built from 27-25 BC. It was built by the magistrate Marcus Agrippa to commemorate the victory of Actium. This was a victory over Antony and Cleopatra. In 80 AD the original temple burned down. Hadrian reconstructed it in 125 AD, and dedicated it to every known god. Septimus Severus and Caracalla maintained and restored the Pantheon. During its use, statues of gods lined the walls, sacrifices were made in the center, and smoke rose out through the oculus. When Christianity replaced paganism, the temple fell out of use for awhile. Pope Boniface IV eventually consecrates the temple as a Christian church. The church was dedicated to Mary and all martyrs, so again the Pantheon is not for specific gods/people. In 667, the Pantheon was stripped of everything of value inside, including the golden roof tiles. It was robbed and restored multiple times. Michelangelo studied at the Pantheon before he designed St. Peter's, and Bernini stripped the Pantheon's bronze for a project in St. Peter's. The bronze doors were restored in 1563.
753 BC-Rome founded by Romulus and Remus 509 BC-Republic established 264-241 BC-First Punic War 218-202 BC-Second Punic War 214-205 BC-First Macedonian War 200-196 BC-Second Macedonian War 171-168 BC-Third Macedonian War 149-146 BC-Third Punic War 150-146 BC-Fourth Macedonian War91-89 BC-Social War 73-71 BC-Spartacus leads slave revolt 63 BC-Cataline conspiracy 59 BC-Caesar, Pompey, and Crassus form alliance 49 BC-Caesar crosses the Rubicon 44 BC-Death of Caesar 476 AD-Fall of Rome
The most agreed upon date for the Fall of the Rome is 476, when the Germanic general Odavacar overthrew the last remaining Roman Emperor. Some say that the split of the eastern and western part of the Roman Empire ruled by different emperors caused Rome to collapse. Some argued that the collapse started when inflation hit the Romans severely after Marcus Aurelius' reign. Regardless, many factors led to the Fall of Rome. Many factors weakened Rome for its fall. These included: Christianity, lead, monetary trouble, decadence, and military troubles. Problems within Rome and pressures from outside of Rome helped facilitate its fall. Imperial incompetence was a major factor. Since there was no clear-cut method for choosing emperor's this left a lot to interpretation. The emperor, the senate, and the Praetorian Guard had a large say. Over 100 years, there were 37 emperors, many killing the last to take his spot, and some selling the position. Therefore, no strong consistent leaders helped unify Rome. Diseases killed many of the poor who lived in unsanitized squalor. Lead pipes used for water also killed many of the rich. All of these reasons contributed to the fall of the greatest empire man has ever seen.
Campus Martius means "Field of Mars" in Latin and was a publicly owned area of Rome. It was about 2 square kilometers wide. According to legend, the Campus Martius was owned by the last king of Rome, Tarquinius Superbus. It was a field of wheat, and was burned during the revolution which established the Roman Republic. In the first centuries after Rome's founding, the Campus Martius was outside of the Servian Wall, so it was used as a pasture and a training place for Rome's military. This is why the name is dedicated to Mars. Later, the field was used to celebrate military triumph. In 221 BC, the Circus Flaminius was built in the Campus Martius. Starting in the time of Sulla, lots from the Campus Martius were sold or granted to influential Romans. During the Augustan Period, the area officially became part of the city. The Ara Pacis (Altar of Peace) was also built to represent the stabilizing of the empire under Augustus. Marcus Agrippa had the swampy part of the grounds made into the Baths of Agrippa. He also built the Porticus Argonautarum, the Pantheon, and the Aqua Virgo. More buildings were made including the Mausoleum of Augustus, the Theater of Marcellus, the temple for Isis, and the baths and bridges built by Nero. Domitianus eventually built a stadium and an Odeion. The area was then filled with temples, buildings, obelisks, etc. Oddly enough, there is no monument dedicated solely to Mars in the later Roman period. The Aurelian Walls were built around 270, which enclosed the Campus Martius.
~Latin literature is one of the enduring legacies of the culture of Ancient Rome. Here is a time-line of it.~ 1. The Early Period (down to ca. 80 BC)-At the beginning of the Early Period, Rome had little to offer in literature. In the 3rd century BC, however, when Rome came in contact with Greek literature, the Romans were fascinated, and started learning Greek literature. All kinds of Greek literary devices were adopted by the Romans. Rome now composed epics, tragedies, satires, and speeches. The comedies of Plautus and Terence were especially accomplished for the time. 2. The Golden Age (80 BC-14 AD)-During the century before Christ, Rome tried to perfect it's literary media. This made Latin literature one of the world's greatest. Latin literature of the time had a beautiful, disciplined form, which is known as classic. A. Ciceronian Period (80-43 BC)-These works were produced during the last years of the Roman Republic. Important writers of the time included Lucretius, Catullus, Cicero, Caesar, Nepos, and Publilius Syrus. B. Augustan Period (43 BC-14 AD)-The first Roman Empire's name was given to this period in Latin literature. Augustus sought to enlist literature in the service of the state. Important writers of the time include Virgil, Horace, Livy, Propertius, and Ovid. 3. The Silver Age (14-ca. 138 AD)-In this age there was excellent writing, but often there are conceits in these writings. This indicates a less sure literary sense and power. The temperaments of a few emperors also limited literature in this age. Important writers of the time include Seneca, Petronius, Quintilian, Martial, Pliny, Tacits, and Juvenal. A. The Archaising Period (mid to late 2nd century)-Taste developed for the vocab and style of early Latin and for the diction of vulgar Latin. Important authors were Fronto and Aulus Gellius. 4. The Patristic Period (late 2nd-5th cens. of our era)-Most of the vital literature of this time was the work of Christian leaders. This included Tertullian, Cyprian, Lactantius, Jerome, Ambrose, and Augustine. These men were educated ad fond of classical authors. Much concern was that the language of the Church should reach the people. Consequently, vulgar Latin re-emerged. When St. Jerome wrote the Vulgate he made sure to translate the Bible into the language of the people. 5. The Medieval Period (6th-14th cens. of our era)-Vulgar Latin now underwent rapid changes, and became known as different Romance languages. Latin still remained the language of the Church and the intellectual world. It was also an international language. Important authors included Isidore of Seville and Dante.
Cicero was an orator, or a public speaker. In Latin, orator means "speaker". Cicero practiced Ars Oratoria, "the art of speaking in public". This was a professional competence cultivated by lawyers and politicians. Fifty-seven of Cicero's speeches have survived, although he delivered at least fifty more. Cicero wrote "Pro Cluentio", "Pro Archia", "Catilinarians", and the fourteen "Philippics". Cicero also wrote many letters. These were very informal, and told a great deal about who Cicero was as a person. These letters demonstrate the virtues in Cicero of loyalty, honesty, humanity, etc.
Marcus Tullius Cicero was born on January 3, 106 B.C. at Arpinum near Rome. He was the eldest so of a wealthy landowner of the same name. Cicero was taken to Rome, to receive the best of education. Cicero did military service under the Social War of Sulla. In 76 B.C., Cicero married Terentia, who was wealthy and part of the ruling class. In 75 B.C. he held the title of quaestor, which gained him membership in the Senate. In 69 B.C., Cicero became aedile and praetor. In 66 B.C., he made his first major political speech. Cicero reached the highest possible office at the earliest possible age. Cicero watched Caesar, Pompey, and Crassus. Cicero was exiled for speaking down of Caesar's methods of consulship. Cicero tried to separate Pompey from his partners, but after he was told not to, for the next 4 years Cicero was largely out of politics. After Pompey's death, Cicero took no part in politics. In the winter of 47-46 B.C., Cicero divorced Terentia, and soon after his daughter Tullia died. The Second Triumvirate was formed with Antony, Lepidus, and Octavian, who soon after put Cicero up for death. Cicero died in 43 B.C.
Caesar was killed because he had many enemies. He also had an illegitimate child. Members of the senate wanted to restore republican liberties. They also had no need for a despot. Many did not want Caesar to start an empire, and many didn't like leaving the old ways either. The wealthy Senate also did not want to have their taxes spent on projects for the benefit of the low class. Many thought killing Caesar was only for the good of Rome. The assassins believed he was too powerful, and they ended him.
Disease crept through the village, with the oozing tendrils of Death flickering at the village-goers. It became apparent that this was a true problem after a pattern had occurred, though, and by then it was too late. The choices were to split and evacuate, or stay and die. Most chose the latter option. The common theory was that it was caused by a contaminated crop, but the sicknesses still arose from crops other than those of the village. Therefore, the village was deemed unclean.
This left four families to fend for themselves. They could not travel north, as mountains barred their way, and they decided to who east. While heading east, they would keep a reasonable distance most of the time, and meet up at the end of the day. The Sistan family was poor and servants. The Punjab family was the wealthiest in the village, as landowner, though now the land was lost. The Xizang family had a writer, who used cuneiform. The father of the family who wrote also could draw maps with a fair accuracy. From the start of the disease, he had written about it. The last group was the Moldova family, which was not very fond of the other families. They were pottery makers.
They left the timber houses standing, as an old memory, a friend. Otherwise, they took all they could carry on their back to travel, which was not light and easy. They would need to sell many possessions when they arrived to make enough money to start anew. They also took crops, since they knew now that the crops were not the problem.
The general idea was to travel east, northeast, until they hit a city, which they would inhabit the outskirts of. The journey would be long and hard, and few would live to tell of it, but they knew not, yet.
That night, the families celebrated, danced, sang, and tried to be merry, as they knew the future was too grim to ponder. The Moldova man told his wife to fetch him his Oud (stringed instrument) which the wife brought back. He played. All were almost merry.
The families crossed deserts and plains, and came near the ocean once, but then realized they had traveled too far south. All this time, the man of the Xizang family had been writing out a map. He was not fooled from the impression that they would all stay together. He knew that something would go wrong, and when it did, the families would split. The question was where, when, and how many families would be lost.
It happened on a spring morning, 3 weeks after the journey began. Tensions were growing between the Punjabs and the Sistans. The Punjabs still ordered the Sistans around, even though they had no more wealth and nothing to pay the Sistans. Therefore, when the chance arose, the Punjabs were quick to take it.
The assumption was that the disease had been left behind them, so when a member of the Sistan family died from it, there was panic. The Punjab family immediately argued that the Sistans should be left behind. The Moldovas supported this thought. The leader of the Xizang family gave a big sigh, and agreed, knowing he was outnumbered, but on one condition. Everyone had to give a small portion of their food supply to the Sistans. The next day, when a small hamlet was reached, the Sistans stayed behind in an area near Iran. At this time, Mr. Xizang put a dot down on his map. He then wondered whether the Sistans were the first family to leave, or the first family exiled? How many more times would the families quickly turn on each other?
That night the man of the Xizangs recorded in his journal. He knew the story of his people would one day be lost without him, so he wrote, and wrote. In the next part of his journal, he wrote down the rules for proper procedure when a family decides to leave or is exiled. This included a share of food, water, and supplies. Father Xinzang wanted to keep this as fair as possible.
While mulling this over, leader Xinzang wonders when his own family will leave the group. Will his family leave unified, or separated? Will they leave exiled and shamed? It was only a matter of time.
Two weeks later, the families were parallel with the Caspian Sea. At this point, a Xinzang fell ill. The other families knew they were nothing without a leader, and unofficially, that leader was father Xinzang. They decided council would be held the next day to determine what to do next.
The other families needed the Xinzangs, but they also needed to live.
That night, father Xinzang pondered before sleep. He had come to the great conclusion. The disease had not followed them, but they had brought it with them. It stayed in waiting inside them, and expressed itself when the body was most vulnerable. This meant that the disease festered in their land long before people died from it.
At the council the next morning, this fact was told to the other families. The Moldovas didn’t believe it, while the Punjabs were on the fence. If what leader Xinzang said was true,then there would be no point in exiling him.
But they didn’t see the logic.
The logic they saw was that the hunting was scarce when all the families alternated it while traveling, but now it would be easier, with no competition.
A fight broke out, with long suppressed emotion roaring out. It was decided that the Xinzangs would stay in the Tocharian area. The Moldova’s were to travel around the Caspian Sea and away, as far as possible from the families as they could get. The Punjabs would travel south to the Indic area. They would settle in the rivers that lead into the Indus River Valley.
Everything had been recorded in the diary, and the father had taught all these skills to the eldest son, who soon became the head of the family, and a family of his own, who had a family of their own. His job was to find the families and record how they had changed over the years. That was the father’s dying wish. That was a year ago.
The eldest son Xinzang was dreading seeing the Punjabs and the Moldovas again, so he started with the Sistans.
He watched from afar first, before he walked up to them and told them what happened and his new journey. The family had changed. The 3rd generation barely spoke any of their language, and the 4th generation spoke none of it at all. Most of the family were still servants, because they knew nothing else. Their religion had changed, too. The 2nd generation wasn’t affected as much, but the 3rd generation barely held any similar beliefs, and the 4th generation was unrecognizable as anything resembling the family’s old religion. True religion. The Sistans were assimilating into the new culture they lived around, and were losing their old ways of life.
The Punjabs were next, but they were not wealthy, they were dirt poor. They had no proper skill to earn any money, and knew not the culture they lived around. They were forced to change quickly, and yet this was not quick enough. The parents were dead. Only the 2nd, 3rd, and 4th generation was left. Without the parents to hold them to their beliefs and remind them of their culture, they changed into the city’s culture as much as possible. The son Xinzang did not even notice at first who they were.
The last family on the list was the Moldovas, who the son Xinzang did not have a map to. He grabbed his own son, younger Xinzang, to accompany him on the trip.
It was the dead of winter. They traveled light, to get to their destination faster, but this was a mistake. As they traveled further and further north, the colder it got, and soon they met snow, which they had never seen. It was no wonder, but something weighing them down, freezing them to the bone.
The eldest son Xinzang died that week, but not before giving specific instructions for when this event came to be. The son would travel on and find the Moldovas. And he would report back.
He did find the Moldovas while huddling in a cave that night. They didn’t make for good conversation, and the younger Xinzang wondered why they hadn’t made it to their destination.
44 BC, March 15-Julius Caesar dies. 44, early May-Meeting with Antony in Pompey's gardens 43, April 14-27-Battle at Mutina (Antonius defeated) 43, May 24-Antony and Lepidus join forces 43, August 19-First consulate of Caesar Augustus 43, October-Meeting with Antony and Lepidus at island of Reni 43, November 27-Second Triumvirate legislated at Rome Many proscriptions occur 42, Spring to Winter-Campaign against Brutus and Cassius October 23-Battle at Philippi 38, January 17-Augustus married Livia, who already had Tiberius (child) 31, September 2-Battle of Actium 30, August-Suicide of Antony and Cleopatra 27, January 13 & 16-Meeting of Senate, name of Augustus awarded 23, June-Augustus ill, assassination attempt by Maecena's brother-in-law 16-13-Gallic and Spanish journey 12, March 6-Augustus elected Pontifex Maximus 4-Augustus named "Pater Patriae", Father of his Country 2, January 1-Dedication of the Forum Augustum 4 AD, July-Augustus wrote his will 14, August-Death of Imperator Caesar Augustus Tiberius succeeds his throne
Near the end of Caesar's reign, he began to consolidate his power. He continued this until 44 B.C.E., when he elected himself dictator for life. This act, along with his continuous attempts at gaining more and more power, turned much of the Senate against him. Sixty members of the Senate came to the the same conclusion. The only resolution was to assassinate Caesar.
The following words are taken (not literally, but as a source) from Nicolaus of Damascus, who wrote an account of Caesar's murder.
After many proposals of how and when to assassinate Caesar, they decided to kill him while he sat in the Senate, where he would be by himself, as no non-Senators were allowed in the Senate. They could also conceal their daggers this way.
Caesar's friends were alarmed at the rumors going around and tried to convince him to stay. They also argued that since he was having a dizzy spell, and since Calpurnia (Caesar's wife) had bad dreams the night before concerning Caesar, that he should stay and tell the Senate he was ill. Brutus then assured Caesar that he would be fine, and that he should have courage. Since Caesar still believed Brutus to be his friend at the time, he accepted and decided to attend. Before Caesar entered the chamber, the priests brought out the sacrifices, which clearly showed unfavorable results for Caesar. This told that there were malignant spirits hidden in the room. Caesar took this excuse to wait to hold the Senate the next day. However, when attendants came to inform him that the Senate was full, and when Brutus once again swayed Caesar's view, he decided to attend. Under the pretext of a request for his brother (whom Caesar exiled), Cimber approaced and grasped Caesar's toga. This was the signal, and many quickly unsheathed their daggers and attacked. At 35 wounds, Caesar let out his last breath. The leader had fallen.
The Appian Way was the first ancient Roman road. It was also the most famous road, and it ran from Rome to Campania. This road was begun in 312 BC, by the censor Appius Claudius Caecus. At first, the road only ran 132 miles from Rome to Capua. By 244 BC, it had been extended another 230 miles to Brundisium. Most of the road was straight till it reached Tarracine. the road was convex, to facilitate drainage. The road's foundation was heavy stone blocks lined with mortar. Parts of the Appian Way still exist today.
http://www.pharmacy.wsu.edu/history/images/picture09.jpg
